AN ASIAN HERB & SPICE GARDEN
Posted 11/28/2024
Okay, this gardener/chef is half Sicilian. Hence why I produce Italian dishes from the kitchen when I’m on auto-pilot.
But — and don’t tell my Sicilian mom and grandmother — my favorite dishes to eat when I’m out and to cook when I think about it are Asian style. That includes mostly Chinese dishes but also some Thai, Vietnamese, Korean, and even a sukoshi (“skosh”) of Japanese.** So I keep plenty of appropriate herbs and spices in fridge and pantry.
Here’s what I’ve planted in my gardens and the gardens of others interested in the cuisines of the Far East:
** I do Indian cuisine as well, but in addition to many of the ingredients listed above, there’s a vast array of other specialties that probably deserve an article unto themselves.
BASILS: THAI/HORAPHA, CINNAMON, LICORICE (Ocimum basilicum var. horapa;
although the most commonly sold “Thai basil” is Ocimum basilicum thyrsiflora, usually a
selection called ‘Siam Queen’).
CHINESE CHIVES, GARLIC CHIVES
CHINESE-PEPPER, “SICHUAN PEPPER”
CILANTRO
CORIANDER/BASIL, VIETNAMESE
CILANTRO/CILANTRO
GALANGAL
GARLIC
GINGERROOT
LEMONGRASS
MAKRUT LIME
MINT, BASIL
PEPPERS, CHILI (Hot Asian)
PERILLA (SHISO, SESAME LEAF) (Perilla frutescens)
SCALLIONS (negi)
TURMERIC
WASABI
One form of perilla: Green shiso (Perilla frutescens f. viridis); these rolled large leaves are used in “ssam” (Korean: 쌈; lit. wrapped), which are dishes in Korean cuisine where one food is wrapped in another
AN ITALIAN HERB GARDEN
Posted 10/23/2024
I grew up in a Sicilian family, playing in my Sicilian grandmother and grandfather’s yard. The yard had flowers but more than that, it had fruit trees galore and lots of herbs and vegetables. Grandfather did most of the tending and grandmother did all the cooking. Sure, it “made me what I am today” – I love gardening and I love cooking (emphasis, of course, on Italian cuisine).
This Sicilian garden had pretty much everything an Italian cook/chef could want. Plenty of citrus and seasonal summer vegetables (tomatoes, particularly), but what really made this garden stand out was the always-needed, right-out-the-back-door selection of fresh herbs.
In one corner (actually in the neighbor’s yard right up against the fence) stood a well-pruned BAY LEAF, BAY LAUREL (in Italian, alloro). For minestre (soups), stufati (stews), salse (sauces). A common piece in bouquet garni, which is that tied-up collection of aromatics that hangs from a string and gets pulled out very neatly toward the end of the cooking time.
A large ROSEMARY (It: rosmarino), although overly whacked to keep to its space, was used regularly in the kitchen. With any fatty meat, for marinades, with vegetables, in breads (mixed with olives), Penne agli Aromi (a pasta “with aromatics”), or a woodier branch from the plant for use to brush oil on grilling meat or fish (grilling being the most popular backyard sport for us Sicilians).
OREGANO (It: origano) and its milder cousin MARJORAM (It: maggiorana) were closest to the back door. My grandmother Vittoria used them sparingly. I, on the other hand, use both regularly in a great variety of sauces (yeah, oregano makes for THE tastiest pizza sauce), soups, stews, whole stems for marinades. Marjoram being more delicate is best saved until near the end of a cooking time; it’s great with anything tomato-centric.
I remember one small SAGE (salvia is the Italian word) and it may not have lasted long; maybe too much shade. Culinary sage is for beans, fish, red meats, in pasta doughs and pizza doughs. There’s brown butter and sage sauce, which is (was?) a trendy complement to pastas, especially pasta ripiena (stuffed pasti, think ravioli).
The THYME (It: timo) grew as a companion beneath/among some ornamentals with enough tenacity to just hang in there. It was for soups, sauces, stews, and marinades. It went especially well with the husky proteins such as beef, pork, lamb along with vegetables such as eggplant, zucchini, potatoes (yes, gnocchi, too), and, in Sicily, peperoncini (no, not those pickled but not hot chartreuse peppers; peperoncini in Italy means small peppers, especially the dried ones with some serious kick). ["Peperoni," by the way, is Italian for any big pepper and not that slightly spicy dried sausage thingy in America.]
A raggedy patch of MINT (It: menta) grew along the side yard, a spot that was mostly shady and usually dry (they prefer wet). A confession: mint is one of my no-thank-you foods; I associate it with medicine rather than Christmas candy. I don’t remember my grandmother using mint in anything but that could be because she avoided it when I was around. I certainly don’t have any mint recipes among my collection of over 7,000 recipes. So, I had to search for some guidelines. A special pesto was possibly the most common recipe I found; in Piedmont, fresh mint is added to agliata — a mortar and pestle mix of the mint plus garlic, olive oil, basil and lemon juice. This agliata verde is mixed into fresh cheese, spread on crostini, or tossed into hot pasta. Salads, too, were up there. Great with anything citrus, fennel, olive oil, anchovy, melon, or tomato. A common add to caponata (eggplant appetizer, of which I do have a super-appetizing recipe, but it does not include mint). Seems useful for “cutting” the heavy flavors of tripe, wild rabbit, and boar. In Umbria, mint is simmered into a braise, or brasato, of veal with porcini mushrooms. Candies and a few other sweets (sorbetto!!) were listed. Per Toscana Mia: “Rubbing fresh mint leaves on the fingers can help eliminate bad smells left on the fingers by garlic or onion.” And per other websites, mint just may be the most commonly used herb in Italy??!!!! Parsley, basil, garlic — what happened?
Then there’s my favorite, FENNEL (It: finocchio). One giant plant was situated in a planter at the base of the stairway to the front door; it seemed to be there for a multitude of years. It was used primarily for its leaf and, very occasionally, its seed. Grandmother put a great handful of chopped fennel frond into a special tomato sauce that was earmarked for seafood and the pasta it topped; it also went into her seafood stew (cioppino-like; "cioppino" derived from the Italian word "ciuppin" (technically a pureed tomato-based seafood soup but the word "ciuppin" refers to any seafood+tomato soup/stew from any coastal village in Italy, including Sicily). In all the Italian restaurants I’ve visited since dining at my grandmother’s table, I’ve bumped into but one that offered a fennel leaf-based pasta sauce. Sigh. The seed is used in sweet things (think biscotti) and Sicilian-style sausage. The pollen, too, found its way into the culinary arts; at least for a short trendy time.
Several varieties of BASIL (It: basilico) were grown pretty much every summer, and almost always along with a number of tomato plants. I remember they were usually the large-leafed types (although not the extra-large “lettuce-leaf” type). It ended up on plates containing the ingredients of a typical insalata Calabrese (mozz, tomato, olive oil, salt, pepper, and the basil; no balsamic vinegar), but they were mixed so unlike a classic insalata Calabrese. I could taste basil in the Sunday pasta sauces during summer. Basil is the green on Margherita Pizza (there’s that mozz and tomato, again). It’s THE pesto (I use basil along with a good gob of fennel leaf in a pesto I make for seafood pasta dishes). Try pesto in your gnocchi dough. Basil lemonade, anyone? The word basil, derived from the Greek word “basileus” or king, reflects how Christians labeled it as “The King of Herbs” and now Italians consider it the same, “Il re delle erbe.”
PARSLEY (It: prezzemolo) grew “wild” throughout the garden, both front and back (I think the entire neighborhood had it). It was always there and regularly picked for the kitchen. Forget using parsley as just a garnish; it’s used in a vast array of Italian dishes. Start with gremolata, the semi-saucy condiment (chopped parsley, garlic, and lemon zest) served on top of grilled meats, fish, and vegetables; I use gremolata to top osso buco. It’s a good add to pesto along with the basil. Parsley is a traditional part of a bouquet garni.
Non-Italians think GARLIC (It: aglio) is the essence of Italian taste. It’s not, however, a staple of Northern Italian cuisine and even in our Sicilian household where it was used a bit, it was never used as much as I’ve found in the hundreds of American-Italian restaurants I’ve been to throughout the U.S. Using raw garlic in dishes from the kitchen is even more rare, although raw garlic might find a place in pesto (not mine) and bruschetta. Grandfather Ambrogio occasionally planted garlic in various spots in the garden (did he have a strategy?). On our tables, garlic was sliced thinly and cooked slowly on low heat or it was dropped as whole cloves into sauces and then retrieved and disposed of before plating. It was never roasted, as is so trendy right now, but in a sense, that’s akin to the slow and low I just mentioned; it brings out the sweetness of the garlic and avoids the bitterness of said garlic. The Piedmont has its bagna càuda (a sauce/dip of garlic, olive oil, and anchovies that is cooked low and slow and served with crudites of raw veggies). One of my favorite dishes as a kid was “pasta aglio e olio” or pasta with garlic and olive oil; the pasta being vermicelli or capellini. In pasta aglio e olio, the garlic was sliced thin and toasted oh-so-gently in the oil before all of it being tossed with the pasta, sometimes with a bit of pasta water to emulsify the “sauce.” I’m told in some regions of Italy the garlic is cooked to the point of being near burnt; that’s a different flavor altogether. I suspect this childhood favorite of mine may still be the most garlic-forward dish I’ve eaten. As for the pesto, I slow-low toast my garlic in a wee bit of olive oil before it’s dumped with additional olive oil into the processor with the other stuff (I also dry-toast my pine nuts for so much more flavor). Overall, garlic seems best in dishes where it can cook on low and slow — that’s sauces, stews, braised meats (I like it in osso buco), and minestrone.
HORTICULTURAL DETAILS, IN BRIEF
BAY LEAF (aka Grecian Bay Laurel; Laurus nobilis). Hardy in Zones 7-10. Best in full sun but will tolerate a little shade. Dwarf cultivars — suitable for containers or small spaces — include ‘Little Ragu’ and ‘Baby Bay’.
ROSEMARY (Salvia rosmarinus, formerly Rosmarinus officinalis). Hardy in Zones 8-10, although a few cultivars tolerate Zone 7, maybe even 6 (e.g., ‘Arp’, ‘Madeline Hill’). Must have full sun and well-drained soil.
OREGANO, SICILIAN (Origanum x majoricum). Hardy in Zones 6-10, maybe Zone5. Needs full sun, good drainage.
OREGANO, TRUE GREEK (Origanum vulgare hirtum). Hardy to Zones 5-10, maybe Zone 4. Needs full sun, good drainage.
MARJORAM (Origanum majorana). Hardy to Zones 9-10, maybe Zones 7 and 8, as well. Best in full sun, great drainage.
SAGE (Salvia officinalis). Hardy in Zones 5-11, maybe Zone 4, as well. Best in full sun, good drainage. ‘Berggarten’, a cultivar with large leaves and rarely blooms which extends the useful life of the leaves.
THYME (Thymus vulgaris). Hardy in Zones 5-10. Full sun, good drainage. Look for a few interesting cultivars: ‘Italian’, ‘Oregano’ (yes, “Oregano Thyme!”), and ‘Pizza’. Lots of sun, perfect drainage.
MINT (Mentha species). For full details, see the article: "THE MANY MINTS."
FENNEL (Foeniculum vulgare “Neopolitanum Group*”). Hardy in Zones 5-10, although best in 8-10. Sun or a wee bit of shade, needs moisture during the growing season. *The bulbous type of fennel, that which is used as a “vegetable,” belongs to the “Azoricum Group.”
BASIL (Ocimum basilicum). A summer annual anywhere. Full sun, good drainage, plenty of moisture.
PARSLEY, ITALIAN or FLAT-LEAF (Petroselinum crispum var. neopolitanum). A biennial that grows best in Zones 6-10, although might tolerate winters of Zones 4 and 5. Sun or some shade. ‘Gigante Italiano’ is an Italian heirloom. Sow seed in late summer to produce clumps before winter.
GARLIC (Allium sativum). Best adapted to Zones 6-9 but works in many parts of Zones 4 and 5 as well as 10. Lots of sun and deep, well-drained soil. Hardneck types are usually fall planted for growing through winter and spring, while softneck types are early spring planted for growing spring to late summer or fall.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
THE MANY MINTS
Posted 9/24/2024
Yep, mints, as a whole, are fast-growing, spreading perennial plants with stolons just below and just above the ground. They need a place to spread without overtaking other plants or running into a lawn or simply off course. Those who’ve grown them have learned to grow them in pots (and even then, they can “sneak out” via breaking off, stolons creeping out the pots’ drain holes, or, with some, dropping seed. Some of the less vigorous (relative, of course) types are often used as small-scale groundcovers or in tight places such as between pavers of a walkway where light traffic can keep them somewhat beaten to controllable submission.
Their basic needs involve sunshine (some tolerate more shade the others, but the more sun, the more oils in the leaf and hence the more flavor), at least seasonal moisture (a few like regular moisture all year), and, to keep them tighter, minimal, if any, fertilizer. Potted plants will, of course, require more frequent watering and regular light feedings during the growing cycles. The soil doesn’t need to be “organically rich,” as many garden sites and references state; overly rich soils encourage excess growth and reduced oil levels. They will grow in heavy soils or, with more frequent watering, in light soils. Mints don’t seem to care about pH.
Mentha suaveolens ‘Pineapple’ (Pineapple Mint, a variegated form)
Mints vary in their hardiness. In general, almost all of them do well in USDA Zones 5 through 8. Several are winter hardy all the way into Zone 3. Some are best left in Zones 8-10+. Although many mints are quite hardy, there are some guidelines for planting timing: late February to early March in zones 10 and above, April in zones 5 to 7, and mid-May in zones 3 and 4. Fall planting works for the overtly vigorous monsters that have been chosen to keep yet belong elsewhere with transplanting. They are evergreen in Zones 8 and higher but deciduous in 7 and lower.
It helps to keep plants bushy (and flatter, where needed) by regularly pinching off tips of new growth. For those who actually use mint in the kitchen (cooking, teas/tisanes, flavoring drinks, decorative ice cubes, simply as an air freshener), regular pinching is probably the only pruning you need.
Slugs and snails love mints and whiteflies just might be their most concerning pest, especially in mild winter zones. A critical key to whitefly prevention is making sure the plants get plenty of air circulation by planting them away from fences and walls. Whiteflies are particularly troublesome on indoor plants.
Although seed is available for many species of mint, almost all mint plants available from retailers and especially from specialists have been propagated vegetatively (aka cuttings). Fortunately, such propagation is extraordinarily easy even for beginning gardeners.
Taxonomically, at least in the sense of how they’re presenting in horticulture circles, mints are a mess. Too many duplicate and ambiguous or downright misleading common names. The botanical names have also had their share of messiness, with more than 3,000 names having been published in the genus Mentha, at ranks from species to forms, the majority of which are regarded as synonyms or “illegitimate names.” Here's a decent listing of the many mints; I have no doubt I'm missing something.
Mentha arvensis ‘Banana’ (BANANA MINT)
Mentha arvensis var. piperascens (JAPANESE PEPPERMINT)
Mentha × carintheana (AUSTRIAN MINT)
Mentha cunninghamii (KIWI MINT, NEW ZEALAND MINT) [because this mint looks very different from other mints, it has been placed in a separate genus, Micromeria]
Mentha × gentilis (LEMON MINT)
Mentha × gracilis (AMERICAN RED MINT) – cultivars include ‘Ginger Mint’, ‘Vietnamese (Pepper)Mint’, ‘Scotch (Spear)Mint’’,
‘Madalene Hill Doublemint’
Mentha × piperita (PEPPERMINT) – cultivars include ‘Basil’ (Basil Mint), ‘Chocolate’ (“Peppermint Patty”), ‘Citrata' (Eau de Cologne Mint)’,
‘Grapefruit’ (Grapefruit Mint), ‘Lime’ (Lime Mint), ‘Orange’ (Orange Mint), Strawberry’ (Strawberry Mint), ‘Swiss’ (Swiss Mint)
Mentha × piperita var. citrata (LEMON MINT)
Mentha requienii (CORSICAN MINT)
Mentha × rotundifolia (APPLE MINT, EGYPTIAN MINT, WOOLY MINT)
Mentha spicata (GREEN MINT, SPEARMINT) – cultivars include ‘Abura’ (Japanese Mint), ‘The Best’, ‘Curly’ (Curly Mint), ‘Doublemint’’,
‘Improved Spearmint’, ‘Mint Julep’ (‘Kentucky Colonel’= same?)
Mentha spicata var. crispa ‘Moroccan’ (MOROCCAN MINT)
Mentha spicata var. crispa ‘Persian’ (PERSIAN MINT)
Mentha suaveolens (APPLE MINT, ROUND-LEAF MINT – one cultivar, ‘Pineapple’ (Pineapple Mint, a variegated form)
Mentha × sauvis (SWEET MINT)
Mentha × verticillata (TEA MINT)
Mentha × villosa (YERBA BUENA MINT) – cultivars include ‘Apple’ (Apple Mint), ‘Mojito’ (Mojito Mint, Cuba Mint)
Mentha × villosa ‘Alopecuroides’ (BOWLE’S MINT)
Mentha Westerfield “Designer” Mints (DESIGNER MINTS) – many cultivars including ‘Berries & Cream’, ‘Candy Lime’, ‘Hillary's Sweet Lemon’,
‘Julia's Sweet Citrus’, ‘Margarita’, Marilyn's Salad’, ‘Marshmallow’, ‘Oregano-Thyme’, ‘Sweet Bay’, ‘Sweet Pear’
The newest leaves have the freshest flavor but are not intensely so. Older leaves have an intense flavor but not necessarily “fresh” (at times, it can be a bit “earthy”). In fresh leaves, there is a sweet yet tangy essence. The two substances that give the mints their characteristic aromas and flavors are menthol (the main aroma of peppermint and Japanese peppermint) and, in the case of spearmint, L-carvone. Beyond that, the “flavored” mints have their own distinctive overtones (lemon and apple, for instance). Mints are most popular in Middle Eastern, Greek, Indian, and Southeast Asian cuisines/dishes.
In cooking, fresh mint leaves are a nice complement to lamb, fish, poultry, and such vegetables as asparagus, beans, baby carrots, cucumbers, eggplant, peas, potatoes (especially “new”), pumpkin, tomatoes. They enhance yogurt and whipped cream. Fresh mint can be used in salads, sauces, pesto, and desserts including ice creams and sweet smoothies.
When it comes to fruit matches, there’s a long list: apple, apricot, blackberry, black currant, blueberry, cantaloupe (muskmelon), coconut, dragon fruit, fig, grape, grapefruit, honeydew, kiwi, kumquat, lemon, lime, mango, nectarine, orange, papaya, peach, pear, pineapple, plum, pomegranate, raspberry, red currant, rhubarb, strawberry, and watermelon.
They combine well with other herbs and spices, particularly basil, cilantro, clove, cumin, dill, ginger, oregano, parsley, and thyme.
Mint also makes for delicious punches, lemonades, teas, and cocktails. Two very well-known drinks, mint julep and Cuban mojito, both depend on spearmint for their cool zest. When it comes to teas (technically, in this case, tisanes), the multitude of flavors encourage experimentation and lots of summertime drinking.
Keep stems or bunches of fresh mint for 2 days in a glass of water in the kitchen. Freeze mint in cubes for iced tea. Preserve them in vinegar or dry them for potpourri or sachets. Dried mint as an add to foods instead of fresh mint, in my opinion, gives little essential mint flavor.
!! THIS JUST IN !! -- a recent study (published in Frontiers in Immunology in April of 2023) found that when mice with Alzheimer's disease inhaled menthol, their cognitive abilities improved. The chemical compound of menthol apparently stops the damage done to the brain that's usually associated with the disease.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
PERENNIAL HERBS — A SELECTION
Posted 9/2/2024
No cook’s garden should be without herbs and no collection of herbs should be without the perennial species.
Herein is an annotated listing of those perennial species, including some that are technically known as “subshrubs” (kind of like perennials that develop some woodiness). Some are evergreen, others are not.
This listing does not include truly shrubby herbs such as rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus; formerly Rosmarinus officinalis). Nor does it include the most tender perennial herbs (those relegated to gardens in zones 9 and 10 only) as well as mints (there are a vast number and almost all should be limited to container growing as they can be quite aggressive in the garden; I include them in a separate article next week: MINTS).
Many of these are good-looking enough to be included in the general landscape along with all the other ornamental plants. Those that I find to be good landscape subjects all-around are marked with the initials “OM” (= “Ornamedibles”). Makes it easy to get herbs in the garden without having to find space among the limited and precious vegetable/edible garden.
Glycyrrhiza glabra (LICORICE)
Allium schoenoprasum (CHIVES); zones 3-9; this is a common and familiar garden and kitchen herb; likes full sun and occasional water once established; too much water and too much shade will lead to reduced flavor; one selected cultivar is ‘Forsgate’, a larger, more vigorous plant; leaves and flowers are edible.
Allium tuberosum (CHINESE CHIVES, GARLIC CHIVES); zones 3-9 (maybe 10); grow garlic chives in full sun in well-drained soil; once established, A. tuberosum is very heat, cold and drought tolerant; clumps should be lifted and divided about every 3 years to maintain vigor and blooming; The flavor of the leaves of A. tuberosum is subtle, like very mild garlic, while the narrow bulbs are strong and sharp when eaten raw; the leaves are used similarly to the way chives or green onions are used; they can be added to salads, egg dishes, soups, or stews; it is used in stir fries and other dishes in several oriental cuisines, especially Korean; the flowers are also edible, so can be used as a garnish or added to salads; OM
Clinopodium (Calamintha) nepeta (MENTUCCIA ROMANA); zones 5-9; the plant likes sunshine and well-drained soil, but generally needs little and is unfussy; short-lived. The flavor is often described as somewhat of a cross between oregano or marjoram and a pure mint, with unique herbal and savory undertones beneath the more forward citrusy-menthol notes; popular in Tuscany, it is often used with dishes featuring mushrooms or fatty meats; in southern Italy, it is sometimes brewed for tea or used to flavor cheeses; in Rome it is used for Carciofi alla Romana (artichoke stuffed with bread crumbs, garlic mentuccia, and olive oil and braised in white wine); OM
Cryptotaenia japonica (MITSUBA, JAPANESE PARSLEY, MOUNTAIN CELERY) zones 4-8; prefers moist, well-drained soil; can grow in anything from full sun to full shade, but it tastes more bitter and the leaves may turn yellow when growing in full sun; its leaves, stems, seeds, sprouts, and roots are edible; fresh leaves and stalks can be added to a mixed green salad, parboiled and served as a vegetable, or stir-fried alone or with other vegetables or meat; in Japan, mitsuba is added fresh or cooked to soups, salads, sukiyaki, sashimi, tempura batter, custards, rice, and vinegared foods; mitsuba turns bitter when cooked for more than a few minutes, so cook it lightly, or add it to cooked dishes just before serving; suitable as a fresh garnish. OM (especially the purple-leafed form).
Foeniculum vulgare “Neopolitanum Group” (FENNEL); zones 5 (maybe 4)-10; easy almost anywhere with fall to spring moisture; may become invasive in some states. This perennial type is useful in the kitchen for its leaf (“fronds”), seeds, and pollen; the “bulbous” type (“Azoricum Group”), on the other hand, is grown as an annual whereby the whole plant is cut off at the ground at harvest. Leaf and seeds have a distinctive anise flavor (the chemical composition of the flavors of both being (E)-anethole; and estragole), very much like licorice (which has a different chemistry but with near identical effects on the tongue). Fennel seeds are popular in sausages and pastries; the leaves are used in making stocks (particularly the stalks for stocks), soups, pasta sauces, pesto, curries, and stir-fries. OM
Glycyrrhiza glabra (LICORICE); zones 7 (maybe 6)-9; prefers deep, rich, moist but well-drained soil in full sun, but will grow in partial shade; can get quite tall; it takes about 3 years for the plant to develop enough thick, fleshy roots to harvest but don’t leave it longer than that as the roots become woody and less palatable; dig up the roots as the plant dies back in autumn but keep some of the smaller, newer roots for replanting for a next crop. Wash and then cut the harvested roots into small chips and either leave to air dry and then store in an airtight container or add water and boil them down to make a thick, molasses-like extract. OM
Levisticum officinale (LOVAGE); zones 4 (maybe 3)-8; sun or part shade and a well-watered soil; can get large; leaves of lovage look and taste like celery but with a spicier flavor (some say that it has anise and citrus undertones); the stems and leaves can be chopped into salads, soups, meatloaf, or sauces; only a leaflet or two is needed to flavor a soup or stew; the hollow stems can be blanched and eaten like asparagus; they can also be candied using simple syrup or make a convenient addition to a Bloody Mary. OM
Melissa officinalis (LEMON BALM); zones 4 (maybe 3)-9; sun or very light shade, requires little water once established; can be an assertive creeper and re-seeder; leaves are the edible part and may be added to salads, soups, sauces, or vegetables; leaves are also used to flavor teas.
Origanum majorana (MARJORAM, SWEET MARJORAM); zones 9 (maybe 8, even 7)-11; typical Mediterranean plant loving sunny, summer-dry, well-drained locations; sweet marjoram adds flavor to a variety of dishes, including meats, vegetables, and soups.
Origanum x majoricum (“SICILIAN” OREGANO); zones 6 (maybe 5)-10; typical Mediterranean plant loving sunny, summer-dry, well-drained locations; this is a hybrid between the classic oregano and sweet marjoram, mostly sold as the selection commonly called “Sicilian” (don’t buy seeds); sweet and spicy tones, with little bitterness.
Origanum onites (POT MARJORAM); zones 7-10; subshrub; typical Mediterranean plant loving sunny, summer-dry, well-drained locations; sharp peppery flavor and a fragrance similar to thyme; can be used fresh or dry for seasoning a wide variety of dishes: meat, fish, pizzas, bread, salads, soups etc.; often sprinkled towards the end of cooking to preserve its strong flavor; can be used to flavor olive oil and vinegar
Origanum vulgare hirtum (O. heracleoticum) (TRUE GREEK OREGANO); zones 5 (maybe 4)-10; more subshrub than perennial; typical Mediterranean plant loving sunny, summer-dry, well-drained locations; the classic oregano; best to buy vegetatively-propagated plants; plants grown from seed often have reduced flavor; used in so many Mediterranean and Middle Eastern dishes.
Piper auritum (HOJA SANTA, MEXICAN PEPPER-LEAF); zones 8-11; can get almost viny-shrubby in warmest winter areas, otherwise a subshrub that mostly dies back each winter; full sun in coolest areas, some shade in warmest areas; needs regular summer watering to get started, only occasionally once established; the flavor has been compared to licorice, sassafras, mint, tarragon, and eucalyptus; most often used fresh and usually cooked, as the leaves remain green and retain their flavor when heated, and the veins are too tough to be eaten raw; the dried leaves can also be used as a seasoning, though fresh hoja santa is much more flavorful and preferred for most uses; used with cheeses, salsas, juices. OM
Salvia elegans (S. rutilans) (PINEAPPLE SAGE); zones to 8 (iffy)-11; subshrub; the cultivar ‘Tangerine’ smells of citrus; full sun, well-drained soil; plenty of summer moisture. Snip young, tender leaves in the morning to use as needed throughout the season; both the leaves and flowers are edible and when fresh can be used whole as a garnish or in salads or desserts; the leaves and flowers can be used as a tea and in jellies and potpourri. OM
Sanguisorba minor (SALAD BURNET); zones 4-8; best in all-day full sun, in loose, low-nutrient soil with regular summer watering. Young burnet leaves are used as an ingredient in salads, dressings, sauces, and summer drinks; it is also used to flavor vinegar, butter, and cream cheese. OM
Satureja thymbra (THYME-LEAVED SAVORY, ZA’ATAR*); zones 8 (maybe 6)-12; subshrub; typical Mediterranean plant loving sunny, summer-dry, well-drained locations. OM
Thymus capitatus (PERSIAN-HYSSOP, ZA’ATAR*); zones 7-10; subshrub; typical Mediterranean plant loving sunny, summer-dry, well-drained locations. OM
* = “Za’atar” is the name given to several species, all of which are used in a dried herb blend called, coincidently, “Za’atar.” Origanum syriacum, the SYRIAN OREGANO (zones 9-10), is another za’atar. Even the common oregano (Origanum vulgare) is called za’atar. Although they all bear flavors in the same “herby” ballpark, there are some not-so-subtle differences. Try a few.
Wasabia japonica (WASABI); zones 8-10 (with cool summers); not the easiest of plants to grow, wasabi requires shady conditions, uniformly moist but not wet soil, and temperatures between 45°F and 75°F without a lot of temperature swings; just a few of the better cultivars: 'Daruma' (is more tolerant of high temperatures than most varieties), 'Fuji Daruma' (is a fast-growing variety, ready to harvest in the same year it is planted), 'Green Thumb' (is a good choice for edible leaves), 'Sanpoo' (developed to grow well in poor soils). Hard to find but a couple of credible sources:
The Wasabi Store (Oregon Coast Wasabi): www.thewasabistore.com/
Half Moon Bay Wasabi: hmbwasabi.com/shop
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
Cryptotaenia japonica (MITSUBA); ’Atropurpurea’ on right
KALES
Posted 8/26/2024
A kale is a kale is a … NOT.
As with so many vegetable types, especially those within the Brassicaceae (cabbages and cousins), kales find themselves in various subtypes, varieties subspecies, “groups,” or other categorizations. And almost all are still called kales. Only a few are familiar and even those that are “familiar” are regularly lumped with or confused with another kale.
So, here’s a kind of annotated introduction and breakdown, which includes pretty much everything I could find that has the word “kale” somewhere in its name or taxonomy. All are suited to growing during the cool season of one's area, except as noted.
My favorite "kale:" gai lan (Chinese broccoli)
Plain-leaved or Kitchen Kale (Brassica oleracea var. sabellica) — leaves are greenish to blue-ish and usually fairly flat.
Russian/Siberian Kale (Brassica napus Pabularia Group or B. .o. var. pabularia) — this kale is variable, especially in that there may be more than one kind of plant called “Siberian kale.” Typical forms have large leaves with crinkly or slightly cut edges (Curly kale is the kind often used for garnishing on restaurant plates, but it is as tasty as the others).
Scotch Kale, Borecole (Brassica oleracea Acephala Group or B. o. var. acephala). Includes ‘Blue Curled Scotch’ and ‘Redbor’. Ancient landrace types include “Madeley” and “Thousandhead” kales.
Dinosaur Kale (Brassica oleracea var. palmifolia) — also called “Lacinato,” “Tuscan Kale,” “cavolo nero,” “nero di Toscana;” a cousin to the other kales but more closely related to collards and cabbage. Bears long leaves that are rumbled and curled under at the edges. Includes ‘Palm Tree’ (‘Chou Palmier’). Will grow through the winters of USDA Zones 8 (maybe 7) to 10.
Perpetual Kale, Tree Kale (Brassica oleracea var. ramosa) — sometimes known as “Tree Collards” or, in the case of the purple-leafed forms, “Purple Tree Collards” (e.g., ‘Richmond’s Purple’). Propagated by cuttings; seeds are rare (“'Homesteader's Kaleidoscopic” is a seed strain mix of colored-leaf forms and “Cottager’s” is a green-leafed seed strain with some perennials and some annuals among the lot). Perennial in USDA Zones 6 to 10.
Jersey Cabbage, Tree Cabbage, Walking Stick Kale (Brassica oleracea var. longata). Grown for the “walking sticks.” Edible? Will grow as a perennial through the winters of USDA Zones 7 (maybe 6) to 10; can be short-lived in 6 and 7.
Collards (Brassica oleracea var. viridis) — closely related to kale (essentially a large-leafed kale). A “milder” kale. Easily winter hardy to USDA Zone 7 but maybe also 6.
“Portugal Cabbage” (Brassica oleracea var. costata) — also called “Tronchuda,” “Couve Tronchuda,” or seakale cabbage. A close relative of collards that is commonly grown in Portugal and Brazil. A near-perennial cabbagey-kale plant. Tolerant of some heat as well as hard frosts. Leaves are harvested individually. Possible precursor to gai lan (Chinese broccoli; later in this article). Will grow through winters in USDA Zones 8 to 10, probably Zone 7, and sometimes Zone 6.
Ethiopian Kale (Brassica carinata). Quick-growing kale for spring sowing. More heat and drought tolerant than other kales. ‘Texsel’ is the one variety for gardens. Ruffly emerald leaves have a mild sweet and spicy flavor with very little bitterness.
“Kalettes” — a recent hybrid between Kale and Brussels Sprouts. Like miniature pink-tinged savoy cabbages on a short stalk. Sweet and nutty.
SPROUTING KALES
Chinese Broccoli, Gai lan (Brassica oleracea Alboglabra Group or B. o. var. alboglabra), a sweet, thick-stemmed (broccoli-like) kale. All parts edible; even roots. Winter hardy in Zones 8 (maybe 7) to 10.
Choi Sum (or Pak choi sum; Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis Parachinensis group), young near-flowering shoots eaten.
Broccoli Raab, more accurately “cimi di rapa” (Brassica rapa Broccoletto group). Spring-grown plants are sometimes called “rapini.” Often spelled “rabe.”
SEA KALE
Sea Kale or Seakale (Crambe maritima), only distantly related to all the other kales, is a large perennial plant, almost bushy, that grows very well in the PNW, especially in light soils and very especially along the coast. It's actually quite an ornamental addition to the landscape (shown below). Culinarily, one of the best ways is to "field blanch" (cover plants with pots in earliest spring before new shoots appear to block all sunlight) first and then cook gently; shoots taste like asparagus with a hint of cabbage. Good perennial in USDA Zones 6 (maybe 5) to 9.
With kale being among the top five veggies in terms of nutritional value, it’s good to know there are so many choices to add variety to your weekly menus.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
Crambe maritima, Sea Kale
BLACK NIGHTSHADE AND GARDEN HUCKLEBERRIES (and some of the in-betweens)
Posted 7/21/2024
First, let me say that I hate common names. There’s a wealth of reasons to not put too much trust in them. But that's another article: "common names versus botanical names."
Second, taxonomic scientists are still working on the genus Solanum so we’re still left with some squirrely bits that don't quite clear up the uncertainties gardeners have, particularly the questions about edibility and toxicity. With that in mind, I can only hope this will offer some guidance to those who want to grow the edible species and forms and will do so cautiously. Solanum nigrum, the most common species appearing in gardens (almost always as a weed), is a highly variable species with many varieties and forms described. There are three recognized subspecies. Beyond that, this species is now part of what has been taxonomically designated the "Solanum nigrum Complex" (also known as Solanum section Solanum); it’s a group of closely related black nightshade species characterized by their lack of prickles and stellate hairs, their white flowers, and their green or black fruits arranged in an umbelliform fashion. The Solanum species in this group can be taxonomically confused, especially because of intermediate forms and hybridization between the species.
"Garden Huckleberry" (Solanum scabrum) — NOT to be confused with so many other “nightshades” that pop up as weeds in the garden.
Some of the major species within the S. nigrum complex are: S. nigrum (of course), S. americanum, S. douglasii, S. opacum, S. ptychanthum, S. retroflexum, S. sarrachoides, S. scabrum (synonyms: S. melanocerasum; S. nigrum var. guineense), and S. villosum. Two of these, S. retroflexum (the “wonderberry” or “sunberry”) and S. scabrum (the “garden huckleberry”) are important in the world of edible gardening. This complex is called the “Morelloid Clade” or “Maurella” (based on Morella; a now defunct taxonomic grouping name proposed in 1813) or simply "the black nightshades."
TOXICITY
The solanine (a soapy glycoalkaloid) levels in S. nigrum have been tested and the plant is rarely fatal. Solanine poisoning symptoms may occur when immature green fruit (looks similar to green peas) or mature leaves are ingested raw. These symptoms are typically delayed for 6 to 12 hours after ingestion. Initial signs of toxicity include fever, sweating, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, confusion, and drowsiness. The rare death, which occurs from ingesting large amounts of the plant, results from cardiac arrhythmias and respiratory failure. Livestock have also been poisoned from nitrate toxicity by grazing the mature leaves and green berries of S. nigrum. Black nightshade is highly variable (hence the “complex”), and it’s wise to avoid eating the berries unless they are a known edible type or strain. The toxin levels may also be affected by the plant's growing conditions. A little aside: other Solanums including tomato, eggplant, and potato contain small amounts of solanine. The solanine builds up in potatoes in storage when exposed to excessive light.
Despite toxicity issues with some forms of Solanum nigrum, the ripe berries and boiled leaves of edible strains (if there really are any) are eaten. The thoroughly boiled leaves — although strong and slightly bitter flavored — are used like spinach. The ripe black berries of the edible forms have been described as sweet and salty, with hints of licorice and
melon -- when described most optimistically. Unfortunately, some of the uses ascribed to S. nigrum in literature may actually apply to other black nightshade species within the same species complex, and proper species identification is essential for food and medicinal uses. In other words, when someone says they eat “black nightshade” (or Solanum nigrum), take it with a large grain of salt.
THE EDIBLES
Solanum scabrum is the most intensively cultivated species from this complex. It's primarily grown for its leaf, particularly in Africa. Because of this, it has undergone considerable genetic selection by farmers for leaf size, leaf edibility, overall plant size, and other characteristics, producing several strains/varieties with a focus on leaves. This species seems to be found only in cultivation rather than as a garden escape ("weed").
Solanum scabrum also happens to be THE “garden huckleberry.” But, as often happens with common names, that common name has been tagged onto a few other species of Solanum including S. melanocerasum (a name of no botanical standing but simply a synonym for S. scabrum) and it's even been applied to S. nigrum itself. Making things more mystifying (and dangerous), plenty of seed catalogs simply offer “garden huckleberry” with no botanical name whatsoever. Further complicating matters, there is variability -- in looks and taste. This plant has another common name: “Petty Morel Berries” (from the old technical name Morella). In Africa, where the leaf dictated most selection work, there also happens to be a few selected strains that show a reduced height, with more and larger fruit; garden huckleberries were most likely further developed from these.
“Chichiquelite” is one berry-edibility-selected variety/form/strain of Solanum scabrum that was collected in Piedras Verdes, a Mayo community in Sonora, Mexico. Some say this is commonly called Miltomato Valista or “Mexican Huckleberry” (another common name!). Solanum scabrum, by the way, is an Old World species that was introduced into the Americas, so there’s no suggestion here that this is an ancient food of the Mayas. In Mexico, the suffix “-quelite” is a generic term used for potherbs. Chichiquelite may be slightly sweeter, slightly juicier than the species. ‘Hei Tien Tsai’ and ‘Mrs. Bee’s Nonbitter’ are other named forms. Several other popular forms from different black nightshades are available in the commercial trade in Mexico, although the origin of these selections is still not clear.
To distinguish Solanum scabrum from S. nigrum: scabrum tends to have long petioles with minimal, if any, decurrent leaf blade tissue (= no wrapping or wings around the stem or petiole); otherwise, it is very similar to S. nigrum.
More common name muddling: these “garden huckleberries” are not to be confused with true huckleberries (Vaccinium spp., Gaylussacia spp.), which are shrubs and belong in an unrelated family.
Another edible nightshade, the wonderberry, was originally sold as Solanum × burbankii, in honor of Luther Burbank, the fellow who claimed to have hybridized it in the early 1900s. Some decades later when taxonomists looked just a wee bit closer at this plant, it was discovered to not be a hybrid at all, but rather the species Solanum retroflexum, originally from southern and southeastern Africa.
The common names wonderberry and sunberry have also been used for the more common black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) in some places, so care must be taken to distinguish them. Wonderberry is also sometimes called garden huckleberry, but that, again, properly refers to S. scabrum. It is genetically close to garden huckleberry as well as to the somewhat edible “golden pearls” (S. villosum). It’s generally a cultivated plant and is uncommon as a garden escape.
TASTE
I'm sure the question about this is in your head. But you know that's a subjective thing. Hence why I won't offer my opinion. But a quick survey of comments in several forums where these plants were discussed -- by many people who actually grew them from seed that was sold as an edible form -- shows that probably more than 9 out of 10 growers found them to be "not much" at best and "bland," "worthless," and "trash can fodder" at the near-inedible end of the scale. Only 10 percent (probably actually less) found them worth growing again. The other good news: those who grew them from seed from a credible source did not die.
OTHER CONFUSING COMMON NAMES
The species most commonly called simply “nightshade” in North America and Britain is Solanum dulcamara, but to be more distinct, this species should be called bittersweet nightshade or woody nightshade. Its foliage and egg-shaped red berries are poisonous, with the same active principle being solanine, in this case with enough to cause convulsions and, albeit rarely, death if taken in large doses.
The common name of “Deadly nightshade,” by the way, properly belongs to Atropa belladonna, which is also commonly called belladonna. It’s a hardy shrub that’s a member of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), as well.
Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
WHY TOMATO LEAVES CURL
Posted 5/3/2024
Something to be on the lookout for this time of year. A minor yet very common concern with tomato plants is their odd habit of curling their leaves upward and over onto themselves. Kind of like they want to roll themselves into a clumsily made cigarette.
Why does this happen?
In 95 to 99 times out of 100, it’s a physiological (called “abiotic”) issue caused by environmental stresses. That would include heat (too early in the season), cold (plants put out too early in the season), drought (as in you’re not watering frequently enough), wind (resourceful temporary windbreaks are too easy), severe pruning (stop with all the pinching already), root damage (uh-oh), transplant shock (too common), and/or excessive moisture (watering too much) and nitrogen (go easy with that bag of fert).
Not a disease, not a bunch of bugs, and definitely not your fault (well, kinda not), this upward curling is not a big deal.
Indeterminate tomato varieties (those that grow big and produce fruit over a long season) tend to exhibit physiological leaf roll more often than determinate varieties (those that grow stocky and shorter and produce fruit over a short season). With the indeterminates, it usually occurs as spring weather shifts to summer.
It’s important to properly harden off tomato seedlings before planting in the garden, to maintain a consistent moisture level in the soil, and to avoid over fertilization, excessive pruning, and root damage during cultivation. Hardening off is all about transitioning seedlings/plantlets from the house or greenhouse to their garden site over a period of a few days (one to two weeks), starting with mostly shade and wind protection outside on the first day, more sun and more openness on day three, more so on day five, and up until they are placed for a couple of days, in their pots, directly on the spot where they are to be planted exactly. This includes hardening off plants you’ve purchased at a nursery or garden center, although the hardening off period would likely be shorter.
Leaf curling itself due to environmental stresses is not a significant concern, but if the stress condition continues, it may eventually lead to blossom end rot fruit and decreased yield.
In a few cases, curled leaves might be an indication of a viral infection.
Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (transmitted by whiteflies) is characterized by new leaves becoming cupped and pale green in color. Tomato mosaic virus causes rolling of leaves, but with other symptoms, as well, including mottled coloring of leaves, small leaflets, and internal browning of infected fruit. If you notice your tomato plants beginning to grow in a wiry pattern and if the leaves are smaller and curled at the tips, your tomato plant has a disease called curly top virus.
There is also the chance of herbicide damage, the rate of occurrence of which would increase with the rate of use by the tomato grower and/or the neighbors’ use.
2,4-D, one of the more common ingredients in broad-leaf weed killers, typically causes a downward rolling (not upward curling) of leaves as well as causing twisted growth.
Plants exposed to glyphosate, the most commonly used herbicide in home gardens, display stunted growth, loss of green coloration, leaf wrinkling or malformation, and tissue death. Sometimes the stunting and wrinkling look a wee bit like leaf curling but not exactly.
While stressed tomato plants show an upward curling, they can also show a downward curl. In such cases, this is normally the result of a lack of nutrients and probably because of root rot. Root rot begins when overwatering (too frequent) causes the plant to stop water uptake, beginning with loss of root hairs and progressing to bacterial and or fungal rot (loss of major tissue, both of roots and, in some diseases, of stem).
So, in almost every case of leaf curling, it’s a short-lived environmental pressure that can be easily remedied or simply waited out.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
PERENNIAL VEGETABLES
Posted 4/26/2024
The COVID pandemic inspired a new wave of Victory Gardens. It’s one of the continuing trends predicted for 2024. People want to grow their own food, for lots of reasons and no longer because going to the grocery store and other crowded places is a health risk.
Combine that with the well-entrenched permaculture movement and you’ll find that plenty of gardeners are now looking more closely at edibles that stick around for a while, especially perennial vegetables. And it goes way beyond asparagus and rhubarb.
I covered the perennial Alliums, and there are many, in a Chef’s Garden article ("ONIONS & KIN, IN BRIEF") some time ago. So herewith I offer up a couple dozen more perennial vegetables by botanical name in alphabetical order – because I don’t want to somehow show favoritism. Yes, I have my favorites but I have too much fun with food to be a good model sometimes.
Tropaeolum tuberosum or MASHUA
Aralia cordata, UDO, MOUNTAIN ASPARAGUS – 6 to 10 feet tall; hardy in USDA Zones 3 to 9; new spring shoots are harvested for one or two months and then blanched and eaten in salads, kinpira (sauteing and simmering in soy and mirin), tempura, in stir-frys, and in miso soup.
Asparagus officinalis, ASPARAGUS – Zones 3 to 10; plenty of varieties, some best in some zones while others in other zones. There are “all-male” varieties, which do not produce fruits and seeds, hence they are more productive, provide a longer season of cutting, and they are longer lived.
Purple varieties, such as ‘Sweet Purple’ and ‘Viola’ (‘Purple Passion’), have a bit more anthocyanins (antioxidants) and just may be a bit sweeter.
White asparagus has a milder flavor than green asparagus. It’s produced when spears are grown in the absence of light. The traditional practice for “field blanching” asparagus is to mound up soil or straw over the asparagus row. It’s easier to use simple row tunnels covered with black, opaque plastic. The traditional cultivar for this is ‘Argenteuil’ but almost any cultivar will do.
Beta vulgaris Cicla Group (or var. cicla), PERPETUAL SPINACH (although distinctly more chard-like in flavor, because, well, this is almost an actual chard, which is Beta vulgaris Flavescens Group). Eat any way you would eat chard.
Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima, SEA BEET – Zones 5 to 9; about 1 to 2 feet tall and just as wide. Chard-like flavor, chard-like cooking techniques and recipes.
Blitum (Chenopodium) bonus-henricus, GOOD-KING-HENRY – Zones 4 to 8; 1 foot high and 1 foot wide. Once the plant matures, the leaves can be harvested for use as a leaf vegetable, with a flavor and texture similar to spinach. The young flowering tips can also be eaten, as can the seeds, which are somewhat similar to quinoa.
Just about every vegetable gardener knows the “brassicas” (the “cole crops:” bok choy, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, kale, kohlrabi, rutabagas, and turnips). But very few know the perennial (and near perennial) selections.
Brassica oleracea var. ramosa, PERPETUAL KALES – Zones 7 (maybe 6) to 10; generally in the 2- to 3-foot range. Includes ‘Kosmic Kale’, “Cottager’s Kale,” and “Purple Tree Collards” (such as ‘Purple Paradise’, ‘Richmond’s Purple’).
Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra, GAI LAN, CHINESE BROCCOLI – a short-lived perennial that struggles with dry heat. Small flower-bud heads very much like broccoli side sprouts. Flavor like a sweet broccoli. The buds along with the stem and leaves, can be cooked any way broccoli is cooked, although traditionally, it’s a stir-fry in ingredient.
Brassica oleracea var. “asparagoides,” PERENNIAL BROCCOLI, SPROUTING BROCCOLI, “NINE-STAR BROCCOLI” – Zones 5 to 9. A sprouting “cauliflower” and sometimes short-lived; often grown as a biennial. Produces a small cauliflower head in the spring followed by a number of broccoli-like flowering shoots.
Crambe maritima, SEA KALE – Zones 5 to 9, best near the coast. Flavor resembling something between kale and asparagus. Shoots and young stems are blanched and eaten like asparagus. Young leaves are eaten like kale or spinach. Don’t eat the old stuff. Even the roots may be eaten but that’s not the best way to keep a perennial plant perennial.
Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus, GLOBE ARTICHOKE – Zones 7 to 11; best grown near the coast. Gardeners in colder areas and in areas away from the coast can grow this as an annual, grown from seed. Taste like, well, artichoke.
Diplotaxis tenuifolia, WILD ITALIAN ARUGULA – Zones 5 to 9; just over a foot tall and wide. Leaves are eaten raw in mixed salads. They are strongly flavored of pepper, very similar to rocket (Eruca vesicaria sativa), the more common arugula, but more robust. The plant produces edible leaves from early spring until autumn.
Hablitzia tamnoides, CAUCASIAN MOUNTAIN SPINACH – Zones 5 (maybe 3?!) to 8 (maybe 9); somewhat vining to 6 feet or to 12 feet with good support in semi-shade. Leaves and young shoots eaten raw or cooked in salads, soups, pies, pizza, Indian and Asian dishes.
Helianthus tuberosus, SUNCHOKE, JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE – Zones 4 (maybe 3) to 8; 6 to 8 feet tall and assertively spreading (keep after it). Tubers contain inulin, a healthy fiber but one that can produce gassiness (start adding it to your diet slowly). Eat the tubers as soon as you can after harvest; they store poorly. Steamed, baked, roasted, grilled, and fried (think sunchoke fries); pretty much any way you do potatoes. For easy prep, select only smooth (not knobby) varieties.
Hemerocallis species, DAYLILIES – Zones 4 to 9 (some may grow in Zone 10); various heights, from under 4 feet to almost 6 feet in bloom. Many species, hybrids of Hemerocallis are edible and some are better than others; some are just barely edible. Fresh flowers of the better ones taste a bit like green beans, chewy lettuce, or asparagus. Don’t use the pollen parts. Even the husky roots can be eaten. You can stuff whole, fresh buds or dry them to use later in stir-frys. Among the many kinds:
H. citrina, CITRON DAYLILY (flowers, tubers, young leaves)
H. citrina ‘Yao Ming’, “GOLDEN NEEDLES” (this is the type most used for “lily buds,” the key ingredient in “mu shu” dishes.
H. fulva, ORANGE DAYLILY (the common “ditch lily”; flowers, tubers, and young leaves are edible)
H. lilioasphodelus, LEMON DAYLILY
H. middendorffii, AMUR DAYLILY
Levisticum officinale, LOVAGE – Zones 4 to 8; easy to grow in sun or light shade (inland) with some moisture. These good-looking plants are generally 3 to 4 feet tall but can get to almost 6 feet. Sweet celery-like flavor; leaves, stems, and even roots are edible. Leaves are used as an herb while the stems (often blanched) are used as a vegetable.
Nasturtium officinale, WATERCRESS – Zones 3 to 11 (!!); gets about a foot tall and flops about up to 3 feet. Likes it wet and will grow in running water (its favorite haunt). An almost “hot” pepperiness.
Oxalis tuberosa, OCA – Zones 7 to 9; grows 1 ½ feet tall and just as wide. Small tubers are acidy, lemony but will turn sweet if left in the sun for a while after harvest. Can be used similarly to potatoes.
Phaseolus coccineus, SCARLET RUNNER BEAN – a perennial in Zones 8 to 10 (in well-drained soil). Rarely sold by variety name, almost always grown just for its scarlet flowers (hummingbird magnets) but some varieties are more edible than others, including ‘Butler’ (stringless), ‘Hammond’s Dwarf’ (bush), ‘Moonlight’ (stringless), ‘Pickwick Dwarf’ (bush), and ‘Polestar’ (stringless).
Rheum x cultorum, RHUBARB – Zones 3 to 8. No other introduction needed.
Rumex acetosa, GARDEN SORREL – Zones 3 to 8; 2 feet high by 2 feet wide, give or take. The leaves contain a high level of oxalic acid, giving it a sour-bitter taste. Small amounts of young leaves can be added fresh to mixed salads but best to at least blanch the leaves before eating.
Rumex scutatus, FRENCH SORREL, SOUP SORREL – Zones 4 to 9; a small plant with almost succulent leaves, just over a foot high (in light shade and with moisture) in flower and maybe 8 inches wide. A lemony flavor but not quite as oxalicky as its cousin R. acetosa. Can be used fresh but as the name implies, it’s great as a soup.
Smallanthus sonchifolius, YACÓN – Zones 7 to 11; 3 to 5 feet tall, some varieties much taller, about 3 feet across. The flavor is often described as a tasty mixture of apple, pear, watermelon, and celery with a crisp celery-like texture without the stringiness. That crispness remains even after being cut or cooked. Yacón is most commonly eaten raw, simply peeled. But you can use it in stir-frys (instead of water chestnuts), in yacón fritters (instead of apples), or in pies mixed with crisp fruit.
Stachys affinis, CHINESE ARTICHOKE, CROSNES – Zones 4 to 8; about 1 ½ feet tall and wide; best in moist soils. Small tubers can be fiddly to prepare and can discolor very quickly after peeling. They are eaten raw or cooked. Mild flavor.
Tropaeolum tuberosum, MASHUA – Zones 8 (maybe 7) to 12; a loose climber to about 6 foot high with a 6-foot spread. For sun or lightest shade. Although the tubers can taste unpleasantly pepper to some people, that sharpness can be tempered by freezing the tubers after cooking or in advance, by allowing several nights of frost before harvesting. When cooked, it has the texture of sweet potato.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
COVER CROPS — The Special Ones
Posted 4/20/2024
Part 3 of 3 on Cover Crops
Cover crops aren’t just seasonal annuals meant solely for reducing potential pest and disease issues. Below are three other categories of cover crops, although the last one doesn’t really fit the parameters of a cover crop’s basic habits and purposes. Don’t mix any of these three categories with any other category here nor with any typical cover crop or mix. Their growth habits, timing, and maintenance are quite different.
PERENNIAL COVER CROPS
Generally used for permanently covering established orchard floors, vineyards, or hillsides. But eminently suitable for a semi-permanent covering on sites yet to be planted or yet to be decided; essentially a “place holder” until the site is actually planned and planted.
An insectary mix blended specifically for attracting beneficial insects.
Common/typical perennial covers include:
ALSIKE CLOVER, Trifolium hybridum
BIRD’S-FOOT TREFOIL, Lotus corniculatus
DUTCH WHITE CLOVER, Trifolium repens f. hollandicum
FESCUES, Festuca species
HAIRY VETCH, Vicia villosa
LADINO CLOVER, Trifolium repens ‘Ladino’
MEDIUM RED CLOVER, Trifolium pratense
PERENNIAL CEREAL RYE, Secale cereale x S. montanum
PERENNIAL RYE, Lolium perenne
To avoid any volunteers becoming a nuisance, make sure to mow the flowering species down at flower bud time. Of course, that eliminates their use as a pollinator attractant so it’s definitely a trade-off.
EDIBLE “COVER CROPS”
These are annual/seasonal species that are to be sown in fall for fall and/or winter “cover” or in earliest spring for spring to summer cover.
Some of these species (favas and grains) can and should be allowed to bloom and set fruit/seed to fulfill their purpose to the gardener. It’s best to leave the roots in the ground, including the radishes, and pick only some leaves from the leafy crops rather than cut off the whole plant. The cereal grain plants, if allowed to set seed, can be harvested but the foliage should be left in place and cut down later if it’s still growing. After harvest, whatever is left can be cut down — it’s still valuable as a coarse mulch, as compost fodder, and most importantly, for the roots in the ground.
ARUGULA, ROCKET (Eruca sativa)
DAIKON RADISH (Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus)
FALL/WINTER TRITICALE (X Triticosecale rimpaui)*
FAVA BEAN (Vicia faba)* ‘Sweet Lorane Improved’ is a special dual-purpose variety; it produces a cover crop-worthy
biomass as well as edible beans.
MÂCHE, CORN SALAD (Valerianella locusta)
MARUBA SANTOH (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis Pekinensis Group)
MISOME (Brassica campestris var. narinosa)
MUSTARD, INDIAN (Brassica juncea)
OATS (Avena sativa)*
SENPOSAI (Brassica rapa X Brassica oleracea)
TOKYO BEKANA (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis Pekinensis Grolup)
TURNIP (Brassica rapa)
TYFON, HOLLAND GREENS (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis X Brassica rapa Rapifera)
WINTER BARLEY (Hordeum vulgare)
WINTER CEREAL RYE (Secale cereale)
WINTER WHEAT (Triticum aestivum)
INSECTARY “COVER CROPS”
Flowers grown for an “insectary” are meant to attract pollinators and other beneficial insects (such as predators and parasitoids). Many are also choice host (food) plants for native moths and butterflies. They are annual/seasonal species that are to be sown in fall for emergence in late winter or earliest spring (although they sometimes jump the gun and begin their lives in fall) and bloom spring into summer. In coldest climes, most are sown in earliest spring, after snow melt, to bloom spring into summer.
Unlike actual cover crops, which are cut down just as they begin to bud, these species are allowed to bloom to fulfill their purpose in the garden. More so, they can and should be allowed to set seed and when the seed is ripe, they can be cut down; but they must be left in place for the seeds to germinate once again with the fall rains or in earliest spring. Think “wildflowers.”
Best sown between the rows of an orchard. They do not need to be sown within the vegetable garden nor should they be sown directly between the veggies in the bed. They can be sown anywhere in the landscape up to 100 feet from where their activity (attracting pollinators) is needed.
The better insectary species are annuals that are native to the region. These species have evolved with the native pollinators and other beneficial insects. Check for a list of the appropriate natives. Beware of seed companies that promote “American natives/wildflowers;” they are almost certainly not native to your region.
Beyond the native wildflowers and within the edible garden itself, you may have some of the following plants which, if left to flower, are prime attractants for beneficial insects (the predators and parasitoids)
ANISE, Pimpinella anisum
BUCKWHEAT, Fagopyrum esculentum
CARAWAY, Carum carvi
CILANTRO/CORIANDER, Coriandrum sativum
CULANTRO Eryngium foetidum
CUMIN, Cuminum cyminum
DILL, Anethum graveolens
FENNEL, Foeniculum vulgare
GERMAN CHAMOMILE, Matricaria recutita
LEMON BALM, Melissa officinalis
LOVAGE, Levisticum officinale
OREGANO, Origanum vulgare (and related herbs)
PARSLEY, Petroselinum crispum
ROMAN CHAMOMILE, Chamaemelum nobile
SAGE, Salvia officinalis
SMALLAGE, Apium graveolens var. secalinum
SUNFLOWER, Helianthus annuus
THYMES, Thymus spp.
The anise, caraway, cilantro/coriander, cumin, fennel, German chamomile, parsley, and smallage are biennials (usually treated as annuals) that can be mixed and sown together at the very beginning of the cool season. They are outstanding beneficial insect attractants and offer up the occasional and minimal foliage harvest for the kitchen, as well.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
COVER CROPS — Selecting, Sowing, and “Harvesting”
Posted 4/15/2024
Part 2 of 3 on Cover Crops
Last week’s article (Part 1) gave a good indication of the values of cover crops. Various types play a particular role in improving soil, with some roles overlapping. These spelled-out roles can help a gardener decide which cover crop type is suitable for their soil.
For most gardeners, there’s a better way to look at it. It starts with having a good idea of what the soil needs. Not a soil test but rather indications of health from the plants themselves.
For instance, if the plants are showing smaller, slower growth and leaves have less green except in the veins, it generally indicates a low level of nitrogen. Legumes would be the “prescription” in such cases. Legumes would also be the chosen cover crop when soil structure needs building (although others might be better), when other nutrients (in addition to nitrogen) need to be taken from the mineral component of the soil (via solubilization), and when the quickest “fuel” is needed for a compost pile (in which case, the crop is cut down, raked up and put into the pile.
This simple homemade “crimper” is a hardwood board fitted with a folded metal flange and a soft but sturdy rope for “guiding.”
Should there be problems with weeds, compacted soil, or nematodes, it’s best to go with biomass type cover crops (with a focus on the allelopathic/biofumigation species for nematodes and some weeds). Within this group of leafy growers are a few husky-rooted types that drill their way into tough soils. Biomass species are also indicated for cutting down and raking up to provide the green component in compost piles.
Where soils are light (porous) or a soil “mix” is used, it’s usually necessary to regularly plant with a deep-rooted cover crop (grasses and grains) that will reach down and pull up the nutrients that have been pushed down with draining water. Diminishing soil structure (or no soil structure to start), compacted soil (similar to structureless soil), and poor drainage (again, similar to structureless soil), are also best improved with these deep-rooted species.
Should the soil quality be unknown, as in the case of new properties or simply no clear signs other than “less than usual,” it’s generally a good idea to sow a mix of species with at least one species from each of the three basic types. The popular mail-order companies that sell cover crops almost exclusively offer a mix or a couple of mixes rather than individual species. Local farm and seed stores are your best bets for specific types and can offer help with selection and timing of sowing.
SOWING A COVER CROP
Cover crop species are divided into two groups when it comes to the timing of sowing. There are cool-season species — those sown in late summer into early fall or early spring in the north, or they are sown in fall to grow through winter in the south.
Among the winter “covers,” there are a few that “winter kill.” That’s when temperatures get so low (below 20°F - 15°F-ish, usually late winter) plants are killed to the ground (usually not returning). Although a shorter length of time in the ground than usual, this can be a very good thing. First, the dead plant vegetation still covers the ground, providing erosion control, and it still has roots in the ground (a significant boost to the edaphon). Second, it eliminates the need to cut the plants down in spring.
On the other hand, some of these cool-season species are so hardy, they will last through winter and often well into spring. Winter rye, for instance, is not only super hardy, it wants to be a long-season annual and has the habit of coming back after repeated choppings/mowings; it needs to be whacked to the ground very early in spring (maybe even in late winter) to prevent it from becoming a beast to get down and keep down.
Then there are the warm-season covers — those sown in late spring to grow through summer and/or sown in mid-summer to grow into fall.
If you’re starting with a brand-new bed and the area has never been tilled, turn it just to scratch the surface enough to allow the seeds to find a footing. After light tilling, level the area, water twice a day, every day, for two weeks and then scrape off weeds. If soil has been worked in the near past and weeds aren’t a serious issue, it’s not necessary to till again. Water the area well one or two days in advance.
In current working beds, clear off vegetable and/or plant residue and/or weeds. Don’t pull. Rake soil evenly. The seed, if small, can be scattered directly onto the ground. Check appropriate seeding rates/amounts with the catalog, the seed/feed store, or a university extension online source. Scatter the seeds, giving them enough space so that they do not germinate in crowded clumps, which will only stunt the growth of the plants. After scattering the seed, use a rigid rake to work the seeds down into the soil a bit and topdress lightly if necessary. A topdressing helps maintain moisture and also keeps the cover crop from turning into instant birdfeed. Large-seeded species, such as many legumes, would do best if “drilled” (pushed into holes in the soil).
For small “neat” areas, the seed can be sown in rows.
After sowing, water lightly but thoroughly and be sure to keep the top of the soil moist (not boggy) for one to two weeks to ensure that seeds receive continual moisture. The routine of watering every day, twice a day for two weeks works well here.
If planning to sow legumes and the soil has not grown legumes in the past or if the soil is suspiciously devoid of nitrogen, make sure to inoculate the legume seeds before planting.
”HARVESTING” A COVER CROP — THE OPTIONS
A cover crop is left to grow until it just begins to flower or until a landscape, flower bed, or vegetable crop is scheduled to be planted, whichever comes first. Although a long grow time is preferred (a minimum of five to six weeks), a cover crop does not need to mature (reach flowering stage) to benefit the soil. Per some microbiologists, it takes as little as three weeks to see a change in the soil structure and microbe development.
It's crucially important to harvest leguminous cover crops before they set seed pods. The seed pods will hold 80 percent of the plant’s fixed nitrogen (hence why beans, peas, and the like are so high in nutritional protein — nitrogen makes up a good part of amino acids which, in turn, make up proteins). So unless the pods are returned to the soil in some manner, it’s taking away from what could be left in the soil. For cover crops that want to mature (flower/fruit/seed) before they’ve provided a full cover, simply cut off that maturing portion and let it drop to the ground while allowing the vegetative growth to continue.
When it reaches maturity, there are three alternative next steps:
Cut or mow down the biomass and leave it in place as a semi-shredded mulch (useful for feeding the edaphon directly and immediately and also useful as a seed covering should there be a need to sow a second cover crop); often called “chop and drop”; or…
Cut down, chopping while cutting, and then “blend” the green manure imperceptibly into the top half-inch of soil using a “roller/crimper.” A homemade crimper (as illustrated above) may be as simple as a 2- to 4-foot-long board with a looped rope tied to each end so that the user can hold and guide the ropes while walking. One or two strips of hard metal are attached along the bottom of the board and angled downward to provide a “blade” that will do the “crimping.” This option allows the knocked down cover crop to naturally incorporate, via surface decomposition, better than the first option, while also reducing weed growth. Crimping also minimizes blow-away or wash-away of the mulch. Crimping is the chosen option in areas where the ground freezes regularly during Winter; or …
Chop or mow down the crop and then rake it up and compost it (useful when the benefits of organic matter are needed elsewhere).
None of the alternatives involve any real “tilling under.” Digging cover crops, or any organic matter, into the soil is an old practice that has been shown to be detrimental to soil structure and the living community of the soil. It also creates other issues but they are beyond the scope of this article (see the "WHY WE SHOULDN'T TILL" article in the BLOG). In order for a cover crop to best improve the soil and to be part of regenerative gardening as a whole, it must be left on top of the soil and not put under it or within it.
Cautionary note: cover crops, especially perennial cover crops, can provide a sheltered traffic zone for rodents such as voles. Monitor surrounding areas regularly for damage or signs of pathways. Do not leave seasonal cover crops to grow beyond their time. Mow down perennial cover crops regularly, before they get untidy.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
COVER CROPS — A Renaissance
Posted 4/5/2024
Part 1 of 3 on Cover Crops
Cover crops are plants grown to:
suppress weeds,
promote soil aggregation and better structure while preventing or remediating soil compaction,
absorb rain and retain soil moisture,
prevent soil erosion,
provide the machinery for specific soil bacteria to transpose nitrogen in the air to an essential nutrient in the soil,
produce organic matter for further composting,
control diseases and pests,
attract pollinators,
foster a more diverse edaphon, and/or
put carbon into the soil (sequestration).
A mixed cover crop of grasses, legumes, and biomass species (the latter being plants grown for lush foliage).
Cover crops are the living mulches for the working gardens such as vegetable gardens and orchards. They can also be used for restoring compacted soils or reducing weeds in advance of planting the ornamental garden.
Perennial, and hopefully permanent, cover crops, albeit quite common in commercial orchards are rarely used in seasonal vegetable gardens or most anywhere in a home garden except as walk-on ground covers between raised beds or as multi-purpose covers in established home orchards. Sometimes they find a role in covering bare ground until a landscape is planned and planted, a project that can take 1, 2, or more years, in which case they are semi-permanent.
Cover crops grown primarily to add organic matter, along with its nutrients, to the soil are called green manures. These cover crops are grown for a specific period of time and then, historically, tilled under and incorporated into the soil while still green or shortly after flowering. Because tilling the soil is now a no-no, the more effective way to use them in the long run is to chop or mow them down while they are still green and in the flower bud stage and leave them on the ground as a typical mulch. This is popularly called “chop and drop.” More about this later.
Most of these “green manures” are fast growers that produce a lot of husky organic matter (“biomass”). Just by their own growth, they are also useful for smothering weeds (hence the semi-common name of “smother crop”).
Cover crops in the legume family — such as peas, beans, and clovers — have a special talent. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria living within and around the plant’s roots take nitrogen from the air and convert it (“fix” it) to a form that future plants in the soil can absorb. As the legume plants grow, the bulk of the nitrogen produced by the root bacteria goes into the plant above ground. Hence why we keep the roots in place after chopping down the plant itself or why we use the chopped plant to “fuel” the compost pile.
Sometimes the appropriate bacteria already exist in the soil and sometimes it’s a matter of treating the seed (“inoculating” it with the proper bacteria) to increase the amount of nitrogen fixed. Most seed dealers sell the inoculum, which is actual bacterial spores in a carrier. How do you know if you have the right bacteria in the soil? Trial grow the legume and have a look at the roots halfway through the plant’s growth cycle (see “Days to Maturity” on seed packet). The pea-size nodules can easily be seen if they are there and they are most visible as the plant blooms.
At the end of the legume’s life cycle when the plants are dying or when they’ve been chopped off, the bacteria in the roots begin to die off or are eaten by other edaphon organisms. This is when they release their nitrogen.
One bonus with legumes is that they produce polysaccharides, one of the soil glues that hold soil particles together in crumbs. These polysaccharides decompose in a matter of months, unfortunately. But good in the short run, nonetheless. Another bonus: many legumes, as they decompose, release chemicals that can free nutrients (especially phosphorus) from the mineral (solubilization) and organic (mineralization).components of the soil
Some cover crops — grasses and grains — absorb and use nutrients from the soil that might otherwise be lost through leaching. They put their roots deep and essentially prevent the loss of nutrients from “fallow” (unused, uncovered) ground or in areas of high rainfall. They then return these nutrients to the soil when the plants are cut down and left in place as a mulch or composted and then used as mulch. Important nutrients such as phosphorous and potassium, along with several micronutrients, are in a sense recycled this way, eliminating or at least minimizing the need to add them from an outside source.
As with leguminous cover crop species, grass species promote a crumbly soil as well, but by a different mechanism. Grasses have a ‘fibrous’ root system—made of numerous fine roots spreading out from the base of the plant. These roots can release compounds that help gather and hold soil particles between the roots. Typical grass types used for this purpose include oats, wheats, and rye.
Some of the grasses/grains and a few of the biomass crops (“green manures”) also have the ability to break up compacted soils by means of strong deep roots, and/or they aggregate loose soils with a dense but fibrous rooting morphology. Deep-rooted cover crops also produce the structure-building “biopores,” the hollows and channels between the solid components that improve drainage and otherwise aerate the soil for the benefit of the edaphon.
Many cover crops have allelopathic capabilities; their roots produce chemicals that negatively impact germination and/or growth of other species in the nearby soil. It’s one of many ways some plants overwhelm competitors or potential competitors. Cover crop species with proven strong allelopathic potential and effective weed suppression ability include:
Among the biomass candidates — sunflower (Helianthus annuus), common flax (Linum usitatissimum), sprouting broccolis (Brassica oleracea), rapeseed (Brassica napus ssp. napus), mustards (Brassica spp. and Sinapis spp.), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), and radish (Raphanus sativus) including and maybe especially daikon. Allelopathic interactions are often species specific. For example, winter rye and its residues are quite active against pigweeds, lambsquarters, purslane, and crabgrass; sunflower and subterranean clover suppress bindweeds and ornamental morning glories. Decomposing residues of brassica cover crops also reduce parasitic nematode numbers through the release of toxic glucosinolates (the same chemicals that give crucifers that touch of pungency.
Among the legumes — white sweet-clover (Melilotus albus), garden vetch (Vicia sativa), velvet-bean (Mucuna pruriens), subterranean clover (Trifolium subterarneum), fava bean (Vicia faba), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), cowpea/yard-long bean (Vigna unguiculata),
Among the grasses/grains — Polish wheat (Triticum polonicum), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), Sudan grass (Sorghum × drummondii), cereal rye (Secale cereale), barley (Hordeum vulgare), common oat (Avena sativa),
Unlike direct competition, allelopathic weed suppression can persist after a cover crop is terminated. Simply leaving the residues on the surface as a mulch creates a shallow (less than one inch) but more persistent allelopathic zone that can last for three to ten weeks depending on weather conditions. Farmers refer to this as “biofumigation.”
Cover cropping for weed control using allelopathic crops isn’t without its problems. Sensitive garden plants can also be poisoned or weakened by the chemical attacks of allelopathic crops. Lettuces are particularly susceptible.
A cover crop may also include a diversity of flowering plants that enhance a cover’s insect-attracting value, attracting and supporting beneficial insects such as pollinators and the predators of garden pests. A beneficial insect attracting cover crop should be a good mix of species with a range of bloom times. A monocrop can attract too many of one beneficial species at one time and encourage spread of disease. More on this specialty in Part 3.
Cover crops can be used as:
Temporary planting of an unplanted landscape, before planting; primarily for weed management but also soil structure development,
Temporary planting in a vegetable garden, between each seasonal planting of the vegetables; as part of a rotation and/or winter cover,
Temporary planting in an orchard, before planting; for pre-plant weed management and nutrient management,
Permanent planting in an orchard, before or any time after planting; for weed management, erosion control, facilitating traffic, and some nutrient management,
Temporary or permanent planting around the periphery of a vegetable garden, orchard or ornamental landscape.
Many newly purchased properties, especially large ones, often have lots of un-landscaped spaces and sometimes those spaces are already filled with weeds or have the potential to become weedy. If the new owners approach the landscape properly — that is, if they take time to do an appropriate design — any bare ground will become weed-strewn during the planning phase. Always best to be proactive with weed management, hence why covering the ground, albeit temporary in this case, is now imperative. A cover crop that is used for a bare, start-up garden, is often a mixture of plant types, the most common being a grass and an inoculated legume but using something from all three categories (legume, grass, biomass) has merit.
© Copyright Joe Seals 2024
ANOTHER LOOK AT CROP ROTATION FOR THE HOME GARDEN
Posted 3/28/2024
The essential principle behind crop rotation is to never plant the same annual vegetable species in the same place in consecutive years, and best not within at least three to four years (commercial organic growers usually practice a 5- to 7- year crop rotation plan).
The practice of interchanging species has been around for centuries. In fact, Near East farmers were using crop rotation schedules 8,000 years ago, alternately planting legumes and cereals. They had realized that planting one crop (monoculture) year after year depleted the soil’s key nutrients.
When it comes to crop rotation in the home gardens, it’s a much more recent thing and, unfortunately, it’s never really caught on as well as it should have. To be fair, it does come with some serious limitations: it doesn’t prevent every type of pest or disease and it loses efficacy as the garden size shrinks. And yet, overall, with putting roots in the ground, it improves a garden's bottom line greatly.
The primary aims of rotation are:
1) to keep pest and disease build-up at bay and
2) to balance nutrient demands.
FOR PEST AND DISEASE SUPPRESSION
This is probably the more complicated of the two aims.
Growing veggies from a single botanical family year after year in the same spot gives pest/disease populations sufficient time to become established and build up to damaging levels. Rotation works because it increases the diversity of the pests’ environment and creates discontinuity in their food supply.
Crop rotation for pest and disease suppression works best on vegetable plots of a decent size -- at least 4 beds, each 4 feet wide by 8 feet long, each separated from the others by at least 3 feet, and foot traffic is kept off the beds. Such size and spacing is important because soil-borne diseases spread laterally, usually with water, and are easily transmitted on muddy garden boots. The overall idea is to allow the pests and diseases within these separate plots of ground to die out. The spacing helps reduce transmission of disease from one bed to another.
The larger the scale of the garden (or farm), the more effectively crop rotation works. Logistically, it provides the room to separate crops and include spacing between such crops to minimize contamination with traffic. The smaller a garden is and when a gardener is only growing two or three different crops, crop rotation becomes less effective. Fortunately, there are other ways in which a gardener can increase success, including topdressing with compost and using seasonal cover crops.
It’s also assumed that none of the beds contain perennial plants (perennial herbs, artichokes, strawberries, etc.), which do not fit into a rotation program.
Keep in mind that crop rotation doesn’t help in the case of all (most?) soil-borne diseases. It’s not effective on pathogens that have a wide host range such as Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, Fusarium species, and Pythium species of fungi as well as the bacteria Erwinia, Rhizomonas, and Streptomyces.
As a rule, rotations are most likely to be practical and effective when they are used against pests which have a relatively narrow host range, cannot move easily from one field to another, and are present before the crop is planted. Unfortunately, not many insect (and other invertebrate) pests fit this pattern. It is minimally effective for such common pests as the cabbage maggot, which can move great distances.
Crop rotation is, however, effective for carrot rust fly, Colorado potato beetle, corn rootworm (same as cucumber beetle), wireworms, white grubs (Phyllophaga and other scarabs), nematodes, and onion maggot.
One of the families of plants common in veggie gardens, the Brassicaceae, has an interesting crop rotation bonus. These plants — the crucifers (e.g., cauliflower, cabbage, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli) — suppress pathogens, nematodes, and weeds by producing toxic chemicals and by stimulating beneficial organisms in the soil, especially when chopped down and crimped into the soil after harvest. Using such plants to manage these pests is called “biofumigation.”
Most importantly, the continued act of crop rotation, unto itself, encourages a diversity in the biome of the soil while suppressing the pathogen load.
Crop rotation can and should also be used for ornamental annual flowers, especially those subject to root pests and diseases.
FOR NUTRIENT ROTATION
It’s a matter of alternating plantings each season between groups of annual/seasonal veggies categorized by nutrient intake habits:
Light feeders (most leaf and root crops, each representing a different subgroup),
Soil-building crops (nitrogen-fixing legumes).
Heavy feeders (most flowering/fruiting vegetable crops)
It boils down to rotating these types of crops per a 4-season plan:
Roots (light feeders, with emphasis on P and K use)
Leaves (light feeders, with emphasis on N use)
Legumes (soil builders)
Fruits (heavy feeders)
I like to look at it using these easy-to-remember fun words:
Roots
Loots (my own corruption of the archaic Indo-European word loof, meaning leaf; or maybe I made that up)
Toots (yes, it’s what you think it means)
Fruits
For the more intensive gardener, the 4-season plan as outlined above can AND SHOULD be enhanced by inserting a fifth group: a cover crop.
That cover crop can be simply “biomass” (“green manure”) for indirectly adding organic matter, a grass/grain cover crop to help develop soil structure and bring leached nutrients back up, and/or a legume cover crop for adding nitrogen. Certain species among these cover crops can also suppress weeds, diseases, and nematodes, reduce soil erosion, increase infiltration of water, decrease nutrient loss, and attract beneficial insects (although cover crops are generally harvested before fully flowering). Each group can fit the gardener’s specific needs; mixing groups is common.
The plants which suppress pests do so by stimulating beneficial organisms in the soil and by producing toxic chemicals. “Biofumigation,” as this is known, is most effective when these crops are chopped fine and crimped into the soil after harvest.
More about cover crops in the home garden in next week's CHEF'S GARDEN.
ROOTS
In a sense, there is third aim to rotation: to put and keep roots in the ground. This is an essential process in maintaining a healthy edaphon (the soil’s living community) and helping develop structure in the soil. Structure, by the way, is much more important than having bushels of organic matter in the soil.
Soils should never be left bare (“fallow”) and should never be left without roots. Nor should they be covered with tarp, plastic, or even cardboard as a winter cover. A good mulch (preferably homemade compost) is minimum; sowing a winter cover crop is so much better. For those who don’t produce a vegetable garden through the winter, this is the “fifth group/season.”
This fifth group in the rotation plan also becomes important on first time gardens where nothing has been grown before (excepting raised beds filled with artificial “soil mixes” rather than native soil). It’s the most effective way to begin “prepping” soils for future planting.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
ONIONS & THEIR KIN — IN BRIEF
Posted 3/22/2024
Chefs and home cooks love the Alliums — onions, garlic, leeks, shallots, and so many others. I discussed regular onions last week, so I now present garlic, leeks, shallots, and some of the many others. "Allium" being the genus part of the botanical name.
All of them have near identical nutritional value. They all contain matching antioxidants, antimicrobial activity, anti-inflammatory effects (and the subsequent anti-aging results), and one thing I didn’t mention last week: the Alliums are particularly rich in soluble fibers called fructans, which help promote healthy gut bacteria. These fructans are the primary reason members of this vegetable family are so potent at supporting a healthy gut microbiome. [CAUTIONARY NOTE: Some of the most popular Alliums — garlic, leeks, shallots, and onions — are very high in fructans, which can, in those prone to it, trigger IBS symptoms.
For the gardener and the cook, herein are the rest of the Allium crowd…
Allium cepa var. aggregatum (Potato Onion)
GARLIC (Allium sativum)
Although the garlic plant’s bulb is the most commonly used part of the plant, other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The leaves and flowers are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic.”
Everyone knows garlic’s pungent, almost spicy flavor and good cooks know that said pungency mellows and sweetens considerably with proper cooking. The essence of garlic’s taste is mainly due to organosulfur compounds such as allicin, present in fresh garlic cloves, which breaks down into ajoene which forms when the garlic is crushed or chopped. Ajoene originates with “ajo,” the Spanish word for garlic. The more a garlic clove is crushed, smashed, chopped, the more ajoene is produced. But there’s a trade-off: the more damage done to a garlic clove, the more easily it is to burn it, especially on high heat, and burning leads to a bitter taste. Hence why “roasted garlic,” whole garlic heads, baked very slowly on low heat in the oven, are a very popular food item. A further metabolite allyl methyl sulfide, also stronger when the garlic is overly chopped or overly cooked, gives some of us garlic breath.
You’ll find garlic in many or most dishes of eastern Asia, India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and much of Latin America.
Garlic is used to infuse oils that season vegetables, meats, breads, and pasta. Garlic goes into hundreds of dipping sauces. In some cuisines, the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer. Latin American cooks use garlic in sofritos (comparable to the French mire poix) and mofongos.
Garlic is ubiquitous in Middle Eastern and Arabic cooking, traditionally crushed together with olive oil, and occasionally salt, to create a Middle Eastern garlic sauce called toum (commonly served with shawarma). It also becomes part of hummus varieties. Smoked garlic is used in various European cuisines, especially for stuffing poultry and game, and in soups and stews.
Whipping up garlic with olive oil produces aioli. Simply crushing it and blending it with a few other ingredients gives us skordalia, mujdei, and ajoblanco. Basic tzatziki is made with yogurt, garlic, and salt.
Gardeners can choose from two groups of garlic:
Hardneck garlic (A. sativum var. ophioscorodon) includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic, and red/purple stripe garlics. Hardneck garlic has a thick, rigid central stalk. It produces large cloves and often has a strong, spicy flavor. You’ll know this type also by the fact that it puts out a flower stalk called a scape in the spring. Hardneck garlic likes cooler weather.
Softneck garlic (A. sativum var. sativum) includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, and creole garlic. Softneck garlic has a flexible stem that flops over when it is ready to be harvested. Softneck garlic produces smaller, more numerous cloves that grow in layers. This is the kind of garlic that can be braided, and it stores the longest (9 to12 months). Softneck garlic withstands warmer temperatures.
LEEK (Allium ampeloprasum [syn. A. x porrum])
Leeks are the milder onion relative, especially when “field blanched” (shading the lower part of the plant to keep it tender). Although almost every recipe says to use just the white base of the leaves, the light green and even the darker green parts, when simmered and then sauteed, are quite edible. All parts are used to make stock or are tied with twine and other herbs to form a bouquet garni. Slow simmering makes it even more tender as well as milder in taste.
In France, leeks (nicknamed asperges du pauvre, “poor man’s asparagus”), are served cold with vinaigrette. Turkish cooks are chop leeks into thick slices, simmer them, and fill the slices with rice, herbs (generally parsley and dill), onion, and black pepper. Leeks mixed with olive oil, currants, pine nuts, and cinnamon make sarma. In Switzerland, leeks are cooked with potatoes for papet vaudois. Sephardic Jews celebrate Rosh Hashanah and Passover with leek patties (keftikas de prasa). Of course, there is cock-a-leekie soup, leek and potato soup, and vichyssoise. Leeks have become common in various Chinese dishes (where I commonly use it).
Early-season leeks (spring-planted) are harvested at 50 to 100 days; late-season leeks (fall-planted; treated as biennials and overwintered) are harvested at 120 to 180 days after sowing. Baby leeks are becoming more popular, whereby either early-season or late-season leeks are grown to maybe only half their maturity.
Some of leek’s closest relatives include:
Elephant “Garlic” (Allium ampeloprasum var. ampeloprasum [syn. A. x porrum bulbiferum])
A wild leek (Allium ampeloprasum, the parent of modern-day leeks) and not a true garlic. If you’re looking for garlic taste, this isn’t it. But it is fun. Treated as a biennial (fall-planted) but can take two years to bulb up fully.
“True” Pearl Onion (A. ampeloprasum var. sectivum or A. ampeloprasum “Pearl-Onion Group”)
They are mostly used for pickling. Most onions grown for pickling are, however, common onions (A. cepa), which are grown to a small size suitable for pickling by planting at a high density. A true pearl onion will take up to two years to become sufficiently sweet.
Coming in at fourth place in the what’s-the-most-popular-Allium poll but one of my favorite Alliums for growing and eating…:
SHALLOT (A. cepa var. aggregatum)
The familiar “shallot” is the ‘French Red’ shallot. But the word “shallot” is also applied to the Persian shallot or musir (A. stipitatum), and the French gray shallot (Allium oschaninii).
Many common shallots are hybrids (Allium cepa X A. fistulosum; see “Tree Onion”).
Shallots taste similar to other types of the common onion, but have a milder, somewhat nutty flavor. The tubular green leaves of the plant are also eaten and are very similar to the leaves of spring onions and chives.
In most Indian cuisines, the distinction between onions and shallots is not so black-and-white. Larger varieties of shallot are sometimes confused with small red onions and used interchangeably. Most parts of India, in fact, use their regional name for onion interchangeably with shallot.
Shallots can be pickled (especially common in Indian, Indonesian, and Persian cuisines), finely sliced and deep-fried (as is common in several Asian and Indian cuisines), and minced for pilafs, risottos, and paellas,
In Sri Kanka, shallots go into pol sambola, lunu miris, and almost every other dish of any type (except desserts). In southern India, tiny varieties of shallots are used in curries and different types of sambar (a lentil-based dish). Momos, Nepalese fried dumplings, almost always include shallots. Wazwan Kashmiri curries use shallots instead of onions.
Shallots boost the flavors of many Southeast Asian dishes, particularly fried rice recipes, and are a key ingredient in noodle and slaw dishes. Palapa, a Filipino shallot-based condiment, is used in the dish called piaparan.
Finally, we have the fun stuff -- the OTHER ONION-Y THINGS:
Potato Onions (A. cepa var. aggregatum)
This is a perennial “multiplier” onion that develops multiple mini-onions for each plant, much like shallot except larger. Planted from bulbs, not seeds.
Welsh Onion (Allium fistulosum)
Also called Japanese Bunching Onion (“Negi”), this specialty can be grown as “spring onions” or “scallions.” Some are hybrids with Allium cepa var. cepa.
Tree Onion (Allium x proliferum [Allium cepa X A. fistulosum])
Probably better known as Topsetting Onions, Walking Onions, or Egyptian Onions, it’s another perennial onion used for “spring onions” (“scallions”) in the spring or for the bulbils, which form at the top of the plant and are cooked very much like little common onions. In Asia, they are the most commonly used Allium for making “scallion” pancakes.
Chinese Chives (Allium tuberosum)
Also called garlic chives, it, too, is an ornamental, as well as edible, clumping perennial. Foliage can be “field-blanched” in the ground for paler, more tender leaves. Foliage and flower scapes are used in stir-fries.
Rakkyo (Allium chinense)
Like small, mild shallot. Perennial, leaves die down in summer, appearing again with fall rains. Grown from small “bulbs” planted in fall, harvested in spring (or grown over for a second year). Yet another “scallion.”
Ramps (Allium tricoccum)
Also known as ramson, wild leek, wood leek, or wild garlic, this is a bulbous perennial flowering plant with an historical trendiness in the culinary world of the east side of the U.S. It does not grow well in the West.
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
ONIONS — IN BRIEF
Posted 3/15/2024
I use a lot of onions in my kitchen. They’re high in vitamin C, loaded with antioxidants, rich in B vitamins, and are a good source of potassium. Onions contain natural antibiotics that help fight potentially dangerous bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E. coli; a group of bacteria that can cause infections in your gut, urinary tract, and other parts of your body); Pseudomonas aeruginosa (found commonly in soil; can cause infections in the blood, lungs (pneumonia), or other parts of the body after surgery), Staphylococcus aureus (the germ behind “staph” infections), and Bacillus cereus (a toxin-producing bacterium found in soil, vegetation, and food; commonly causing intestinal illnesses with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea).
One of the superheroes of the nutritional soup within onions is quercetin, a flavanol that is a potent antioxidant. It is a versatile antioxidant known to possess protective abilities against tissue injury induced by various drug toxicities and it reduces bacteria growth including the development of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a type of bacteria associated with stomach ulcers and certain digestive cancers. Maybe I didn’t eat enough onions when I was a kid because I suffered considerably with H. pylori in my twenties and thirties.
The colors of the American onion rainbow: red/purple, white, brown, and yellow.
As for a garden plant, onions are certainly one of the easiest vegetables to grow.
In the kitchen, onions are probably the most commonly found fresh edible in the pantry. Versatility be thy name. And yet confusion surrounds this hard ball of a veggie and its many cousins. So, let’s see if I can set the names and uses issues straight.
Let’s start with THE onion: Allium cepa var. cepa. This is the very common bulbing onion. For gardeners, the basic onion is categorized in three ways. The first is by day-length sensitivity. This has to do with optimum growing season. There are “long-day onions,” which start “bulbing up” when there is 14 to 16 hours of daylight. They’re usually planted in earliest spring.
Then there are “short-day onions,” which start “bulbing up” when there are 10 to 12 hours of daylight. They’re usually planted in fall and mature in late spring/earliest summer.
Intermediate or “day-length neutral” onions are somewhere in-between, with most adapted to planting in either spring or fall. ‘Walla Walla’ and ‘Candy’ are “intermediate” onions.
Seeds of bulbing onions are best started indoors (or in a greenhouse or cold frame) to produce plants that are then planted out at the appropriate time. Plantlets (green stalks) are bought in bundles and are possibly the easiest and maybe best way for producing onions, albeit difficult to find a broad selection. “Sets” are small, dry immature onion bulbs grown the season before. They are “baby” onions, in a sense. Quick, easy, but limited selection.
A second way to categorize such onions is by their kitchen/eating value. In this case, there are storage onions, those which develop more sulfur compounds to fight off the various bacteria and fungi that want to decompose them during storage, and fresh-eating onions with less such compounds, obviously making them more “sweet” and more pleasant to eat.
The third way of categorizing onions is by their color. Yellow/brown onions are the most popular, being a multi-purpose onion. It’s what we caramelize, roast, sauté, and turn into onion soup and onion rings. White onions are the more sharply flavored. We use them in Mexican cuisine (especially salsas) and for slicing thinly to go on fatty, oily, vinegary sandwiches. Red onions have become the go-to onion for salads and most sandwiches (at least those where you’d want an onion slice or two). Red onions pickle nicely, they grill beautifully when sliced thickly, and chopped small, they put a little kick into a salad. Red onions used to be sweeter but the grand-scale commercialization of red onions has made “storage ability” a required genetic trait.
From this species, Allium cepa, we also get:
“Green onions,” also sometimes called “bunching onions,” a name also used for Welsh onions, which are themselves sometimes grown for a similar culinary purpose. “Green onions” can be ordinary onions (of any type) sown from seed, grown closely, and picked while still skinny-green. Proper “green onions” or bunching onions are grown from seed of distinct strains/varieties (selections from Allium cepa var. cepa, listed as “green onion” or “bunching onion”).
“Scallions,” commonly used synonymously (albeit often incorrectly) with "green onions" in recipes. Where green/bunching onions are used more as an herb for seasoning/flavoring or garnish, true scallions are used more as a husky vegetable (think “Mongolian Beef”). Scallions in America are grown from onion “sets,” not seed, to produce larger leaves. Scallions can also be grown from shallots (A. cepa var. aggregatum or Allium cepa X A. fistulosum hybrids), “tree onions” (Allium x proliferum), Chinese onion (Allium chinense), and Welsh or “bunching onion” (Allium fistulosum and hybrids with A. cepa).
“Spring onions” is an old name for common (bulbing) onions grown just beyond the green stage to when a small, immature bulb (no papery skin) appears. Traditionally sown in fall and harvested in Spring, hence the name. Nowadays, more commonly called “Mexican onions” (“cebolla de Mexico”).
"Calçot" is a selected form of onion that is grown in the same manner as a spring onion, but it is "field blanched" by hilling up the soil as the plant grows in spring. This is much as is done with celery and white asparagus. The original variety(ies) was selected in the Catalan region of Spain, but the procedure can be applied anywhere spring onions can be grown. Beyond this field blanching, the onions are almost always grilled until charred and the blackened skin is peeled off before the onion is dipped in salvitxada (also called salsa de calçot or simply calçots' sauce), a specialty of Catalan and similar to a romesco sauce.
“Sweet Onions.” This group includes the very familiar ‘Vidalia’, ‘Walla Walla’, and ‘Maui Sweet’, as well as several others not so well-known. The variety name ‘Bermuda’ used to be an actual variety of onion that was grown on the island of Bermuda and exported to the U.S.; it was developed from onions brought in from Europe. The name “Bermuda onion” has become a generic term for any red onion (most of which are sulfury un-sweet storage onions today).
“Cipollini” (also called “cipolle borettane,” for the region of their origin) are considered “specialty produce” in the U.S. But they are the standard type of onion in Italy and most of Europe. “Cipollini” is Italian for “little cipolla,” cipolla meaning, of course, onion. They are mostly fresh-eating onions (sweet) that are small and flattened from top to bottom.
Next week, part two, “Garlic, Leeks, Shallots, and the Other Eatable Alliums”
© Copyright Joe Seals, 2024
